I have the feeling that
people are unlikely to read my entire brief from Bilski. Therefore I am excerpting here just the part
that criticizes Gottshalk v Benson, so that people can find it more easily.
GOTTSHALK V. BENSON[X]
This seminal case in the field of patentable subject matter was
decided with an opinion written by Justice Douglas. When the undersigned
was first learning about patent law, she heard patent attorneys sniping rather
cynically about Justice Douglas, opining that the approach of Justice Douglas
towards patents was “The only valid patent is one that has not been reviewed by
this court.” Perhaps attorneys did not say so in court papers, but they
said so to each other.
The Benson case contains a number of statements that
invite clarification or repudiation.
Anxiety about the idea of patent monopoly manifests, e.g. “The
end use may (1) vary from the operation of a train to verification of drivers’
licenses to researching the law books for precedents and (2) be performed
through any existing machinery or future-devised machinery or without any
apparatus…” 408 U.S. at 68
Some of this language seems to contradict the opinion’s later
conclusion that the algorithm had no practical application outside a digital
computer.
Additionally, the anxiety expressed here about breadth of claims
really has nothing to do with subject matter. If one imagines
hypothetically the first inventor of the carpentry nail, for instance, such an
inventor could get a patent that would cover a nail, whether that nail were to
be used in constructing a house, constructing a boat, scratching the surface of
a soft material, or cleaning dirt out of a crevice. This is the nature of
a patent, to give the inventor broad scope of protection – and, yet, if one
were to apply the reasoning of the above paragraph, one might strike down a
patent on such an original mechanical device out of fear of its scope.
This would defeat the whole purpose of the patent law.
Another statement in Benson is “A digital computer,
as distinguished from an analog computer, is that which operates on data
expressed in digits, solving a problem by doing arithmetic as a person would do
it by head and hand.” 409 U.S. at 65.[xi]
Perhaps some computer scientists thought this was true at the time, but
experts in artificial intelligence and neurology no longer believe that
computers think like people, at least when using the type of program that was
at issue in this case[xii].
People may have in their heads some illusion that they are thinking the way
that computers process data, but this is not at all a complete explanation of
the mysterious workings of the human brain.
Another statement from Benson is:
We have, however, made clear from the start that we deal with a
program only for digital computers… The mathematical formula involved here has
no substantial practical application except in connection with a digital
computer, which means that if the judgment below is affirmed, the patent would
wholly pre-empt the mathematical formula and in practical effect would be a
patent on the algorithm itself. 409 U.S. 71-72
These assertions recognize that the invention can only be
practically used in a computer and then jump to the conclusion that the entire
algorithm is pre-empted. This reasoning, operating in conjunction
with the belief stated earlier that computers think like people, gives rise to
the disturbing implication that software related inventions include human
thought, “pre-empting the entire algorithm” — that if computers think like
people, then a claim reading on a computer processing reads on a person
thinking. Such a leap of logic would be a clear fallacy. If one
starts from a premise that an airplane flies like a bird, one should not
therefore conclude that a claim reading on an airplane flying would read on a
bird flying.
Moreover, there remains the inconsistency between the one
statement saying that the claim reads on a person and the other statement that
says the reasoning is motivated by the fact that the algorithm has no
substantial application outside a computer. Indeed, no art having apparently
been cited, it would appear that no one was motivated to attempt this rather
cumbersome representation of decimal numbers prior to the arrival of computer
storage with its binary nature.
Another sub-optimal aspect of this opinion is a failure to make
a distinction between two very different claims. Claim 13[xiii]
could conceivably have read on a human working with head and hand. Claim
8[xiv],
on the other hand, recited the use of a shift register. A shift register
is a piece of electronic equipment that can only be used with other electronic
equipment, such as sources of power, electronic data signals, and clock
signals. A shift register absolutely and categorically cannot be used by
a human’s naked hand. This is physically impossible. The failure of
Benson’s insufficiently considered opinion to recognize the distinction
between these two claims has given rise to much later confusion.
There
seems to be a prejudice against electronic devices in both Benson and
Morse. Patent attorneys, with their scientific training, have
studied Newtonian mechanics[xv]
together with Maxwell’s Equations[xvi]
regarding electricity and magnetism in the same physics courses with the same
physics professors. They have seen, in quantum mechanics, how subatomic
wave/particles — surrounded mostly by empty space — cooperate to create
classical mechanics, electricity, magnetism, and radiation — allowing one form
of physical phenomenon to be transformed into another: matter into energy and
energy into matter[xvii].
Those thus trained have no philosophical rubric with which to distinguish
electrical and mechanical devices one from the other logically, rendering the
distinctions between the two categories from the point of view of patentable
subject matter unjustifiable.
Endnotes:
[x] Gottshalk v.
Benson, 409 U.S. 63, 172 U.S.P.Q. (BNA) 673, (1972)
[xi]
The aspect of computer software that looks like mathematics, namely its source
code, belies the fact that upon compilation and execution that software
actually becomes a configuration of a hardware device. see e.g. “Dissent
of Commissioner Hersey” to the report of the National Commission on Ne
Technological Uses of Copyrighted Works” at Ch. 3 (CONTU) (1978) http://digital-law-online.info/CONTU/contu14.html.
[xii]
cf M. Minski, “Why People Think Computers Can’t”, (MIT, Cambridge,
7/6/2005)) http://aleph0.clarku.edu/~jbreecher/public/2005_Can_Computers_Think/Minsky-WhyPeopleThinkComputersCant.pdf (Describing
how early computer programs were quite different from human thought and how
researchers are trying to make them closer); J. Bryner, “Greatest
Mysteries: How Does the Brain Work?” (Live Science, Au., 2, 2007) http://www.livescience.com/strangenews/070802_gm_brain.html (explaining
that scientists still do not know how the brain works, because of the
complexity of neurons, so it would be difficult to conclude that binary
electronic circuits such as are found in a computer actually work “like” the
brain)
[xiii]
“A data processing method for converting binary coded decimal number
representations into binary number representations comprising the steps of—
“(1) testing each binary digit position i , beginning
with the least significant binary digit position, of the most significant
decimal digit representation for a binary ‘0’ or a binary ‘1’;
“(2) if a binary ‘0’ is detected, repeating step (1) for the
next least significant binary digit position of said most significant decimal
digit representation;
“(3) if a binary ‘1’ is detected, adding a binary ‘1’at the
(i+1)th and (i+3)th least significant binary digit positions of the next lesser
significant decimal digit representation, and repeating step (1) for the next
least significant binary digit position of said most significant decimal digit
representation;
“(4) upon exhausting the binary digit positions of said most
significant decimal digit representation, repeating steps (1) through (3) for
the next lesser significant decimal digit representation as modified by the
previous execution of steps (1) through (3); and
“(5) repeating steps (1) through (4) until the second least
significant decimal digit representation has been so processed.” 409 U.S. at 74
[xiv] “The
method of converting signals from binary coded decimal form into binary which
comprises the steps of—
“(1) storing the binary coded decimal signals in a reentrant
shift register,
“(2) shifting the signals to the right by at least three places,
until there is a binary ‘1’ in the second position of said register,
“(3) masking out said binary ‘1’ in said second position of said
register,
“(4) adding a binary ‘1’ to the first position of said register,
“(5) shifting the signals to the left by two positions,
”(6) adding a ‘1’ to said first position, and
“(7) shifting the signals to the right by at least three
positions in preparation for a succeeding binary ‘1’ in the second position of
said register.” 409 U.S. at 73-74
[xv]
see, e.g. I. Newton, De motu corporum in gyrum (1684); I. Newton,
I Newton, Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica (1687)
[xvi]
In electromagnetism, Maxwell's equations are a set of four partial differential
equations that describe the properties of the electric and magnetic fields and
relate them to their sources, charge density and current density. These
equations are used to show that light is an electromagnetic wave. Individually,
the equations are known as Gauss's law, Gauss's law for magnetism, Faraday's
law of induction, and Ampère's law with Maxwell's correction.
These four equations, together with the Lorentz force law are
the complete set of laws of classical electromagnetism. The Lorentz force law
itself was actually derived by Maxwell under the name of "Equation for
Electromotive Force" and was one of an earlier set of eight Maxwell's
equations. “Maxwell's equations,” http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations
(18 February 2009, at 01:59)
